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XAssuming, when introduced to a team, that a male is the leader and primarily addressing comments to him.  XIf a man, being more friendly and encouraging to male peers and subordinates than to females, even if it is out of a desire to avoid having one's friendliness mistaken for flirtation.  XAssuming that a woman will not pursue her career as seriously as a man because she will leave her job to have children. While some women take time off for children, all women (and no men) are hurt by this prejudice.   Additionally, one can help counteract another person's subconscious bias by either discreetly calling it to the person's attention or by directly offsetting it. For example, if a female colleague keeps getting interrupted or ignored, one can express interest in what she is saying without directly telling people to listen to her, which might be interpreted as patronizing.  A female graduate student provided me with some positive examples of how her advisor treated her. In addition to generally treating her with respect, by giving her challenging projects and the necessary resources to complete them, there were two specific things he did that especially impressed her: XWhen the student was preparing a paper the two of them co-authored for a conference, she made a dozen copies to send in, as required by the program committee. When her advisor saw her collating them, he told her that she should have had the group secretary do that. The student was impressed with this remark because she felt other professors might see nothing wrong with a female's doing clerical work but would have only redirected male students to a secretary.  XWhen the student proofread a paper for her advisor, he thanked her by name in the acknowledgments "for her careful proofreading of this paper and [acknowledged] her ongoing study of [related research area]." By mentioning her research area, the advisor made clear to readers that, despite her female name, she was not a secretary.  Avoiding Unintentionally Offensive or Discriminatory Behavior While any well-intentioned person avoids behavior that they know to be offensive, some people do not realize that certain behaviors, discussed throughout this report, offend some women. Good intentions are no guarantee that women will not get the wrong message. For example, a woman might feel uncomfortable with a man who has revealing pictures of women on his walls or computer screen. Additionally, by not using language that could be interpreted as sexist, such as "he" for the generic computer architect and terms like "manpower," women feel more included. One positive example is the name on a sample application for the United States Department of Defense fellowships, included in the instruction booklet: "Smith, Dana Robin." Both "Dana" and "Robin" can be either female or male names. Another positive example is the alternating usage of "he" and "she" as the default singular program in chapters of the influential Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach, by John Hennessy and David Patterson. There are many guides to "nonsexist" communication, such as [Persing 1978].'?0*((Ԍ Someone who supervises a research or work group or organizes its events should try to choose activities at which all group members would feel comfortable. While it is not always possible to choose an activity that everyone relates to-for example, some people are uninterested in any sport-an effort should be made to include everyone in at least some of the social occasions. I have seen people repeatedly left out of social activities springing from the workplace because they are poor athletes or disabled, have unusual dietary requirements, or do not drink alcohol. Anyone who cannot socialize with the group will not feel as though they fully belong. (Conversely, anybody who does not want to socialize with the work group, for whatever reasons, should not be made to feel unwelcome as a worker.) Encouragement Some professors rarely encourage or praise their students, but such encouragement, even if just a few spoken words, is greatly appreciated and rarely forgotten [Widnall 1988, page 1743]. For example, suggesting that a student consider graduate school can make a substantial difference [Leveson 1989, page 23]. In one survey of female scientists, "[t]he encouragement of teachers-along with that of fathers-was the influence most frequently quoted as steering [them] towards science" [Ferry et al. 1982, page 27]. In practice, women often do not get encouragement from teachers and guidance counselors ([Cooper Union 1989] in [Baum 1990, page 48]). While encouragement should be directed to worthy males and females, it has greatest effect with people who receive little encouragement and who have low selfesteem, often women [Zappert et al. 1984, page 8]. (See, for example, page 12 of this report.)  Additionally, it is important for parents to encourage their daughters as well as their sons in technical areas. "According to one computer camp director, `Mothers bring their boys to the classes. Girls have to beg to enroll'" [Hess et al. 1985, page 201]. Even if parents do treat their children equally, it is impossible to make girls feel that it's as normal for girls to use computers as it is for boys, with all the biases in our society (Section 1.1.3) and in children's toys and computer games (Section 1.1.2). Nevertheless, it is clearly important to encourage one's daughters, and many female computer scientists attribute their career choice and success to parents who encouraged them. 5.1.5 Discussion Readers will notice that there are many situations for which I made no recommendations. For example, I had no advice for the woman who told me about dining with a group of men after a conference who then began telling jokes that were specifically degrading of women. I also have found myself with nothing to say when a brilliant female graduate student says she avoids a certain research area because of the specific men at the university involved in it. Unfortunately, there is a substantial class of behavior which is both offensive and non-actionable. 5.2 Conclusions A common thread through the previous chapters is that, for the most part, people are not consciously trying to discourage women from science and engineering. Instead, people's behavior is often subconsciously influenced by stereotypes that they may not even realize they have. Additionally, when companies direct technical games and products to men, their intent is not to perpetuate stereotypes but to target the largest existing audience. That some women feel uncomfortable in mostly male environments is not primarily a result of men's trying to make them feel unwelcome but of dynamics resulting directly from the male majority and societal sex-based differences in behavior. While'@0*(( perhaps it is comforting to know that no conspiracy exists against female computer scientists, it also means that the problem is harder to fight. The negative influences described in this report are so varied and decentralized that there is no simple way to level the playing field.  One positive factor is that women and other underrepresented groups are becoming a crucial resource pool. The number of white males of college age is decreasing, while the need for engineers and scientists is increasing [Leveson 1989, page 7]. I have been told this is causing even the most conservative businessmen to begin aggressively targeting women and minorities as highly-trained technical workers.  Another reason for optimism is seeing how greatly the situation has changed. Although discrimination against women continues, it is nothing compared to the level earlier this century or in the previous one, as some of the quotations at the beginning of chapters have indicated. Unfortunately, there has been retrograde motion before: In the 1920s, feminist activity reduced sexual discrimination at prestigious universities, but "this trend toward equity was reversed in the 1930s and not resumed until the 1960s" [Simeone 1987, page xi].  A0*((  U 1  1 r!!<#dddB<*d0 T  Figure A.1: Call for Data VC #Y P7P#For one of my classes ("Women and Computers"), I'm doing a project on ways in which the message "Computers/Science/Engineering isn't for girls/women" (or the opposite) is communicated. Some examples would include: ,,,Computer ads featuring scantily-clad women.Q , ,,,An ad I received for a pink calculator that could fit in my "chic little handbag," with large keys to keep from breaking one's "gorgeous nails." (Their words, not mine.)Q , ,,,Being treated differently by teachers or coworkers.Q , I've been collecting some of the more egregious examples for the past few years, and I'm hoping some of you have your favorite examples. I am interested in xeroxes or references to items in print as well as anecdotes. Despite the one-sidedness of my examples, I am interested in both pro and antifemale material. Please email me (erspert@athena.mit.edu) or physically send material to: Ellen Spertus MIT AI Lab, room 630 545 Technology Square Cambridge, MA 02139 I will send copies of my report to anyone who contributes and/or is  VC interested. Thanks in advance for any help.r$(#(#$$!$'#$APPENDIX A: ABOUT THIS PAPER !$'# !$'#A.1 Data Collection Methods !$'# !$'#In this document, I include some anecdotal !$'#evidence in addition to quoting other studies and !$'#reports. One way I solicited information was !$'#through computer networks. I posted requests !$'#for information to private and public electronic !$'#mailing lists-that is, systems that allow a !$'#person to send messages from their computer to !$'#the computers of other people. My initial !$'#request is included in Figure A.1. It was sent !$'#to a private list of women in computer science !$'#and the following public "newsgroups" !$'#(electronic bulletin boards): comp.society, !$'#comp.misc, alt.folklore.computers, comp.edu, !$'#soc.women, and soc.feminism. From the net, I !$'#got roughly 150 responses. Some of these !$'#included pointers to published reports or to !$'#examples of sexism or anti-sexism in published !$'#works. These letters often included reactions !$'#(such as "I found such-and-such upsetting") and !$'#opinions ("I am opposed to such-and-such"). $$@(#(#Other letters included anecdotes. Some of these letters were from sources I had reason to trust (friends of friends); for others, I had no way of verifying any stories. Other categories of letters were polite dissent and "flames"-attacks from people who disagreed with whatever they inferred from my call for information. As described in the introduction, I also learned from my critics and attackers.  The data in my paper falls into the following categories:  X 1. Published statistics.(#  X 2. Quotations from computer books or magazines.(# , , 3. Events I have personally witnessed or taken part in.(# , , 4. Quotations and paraphrases from published and unpublished reports.(# , , 5. Anecdotes and opinions from people I know.(# , , 6. Anecdotes and opinions from friends of friends.(# , , 7. Anecdotes and opinions from people I don't know.(# Readers will have their own opinions on how much credence to give to each category. The only category I have qualms about is anecdotes from people I do not know. Consequently, I have never based an argument entirely on them. Unfortunately, anonymity was important to many people who0'B0*(($'#!B0 gave stories, and I decided all contributions, except from published or privatelydistributed reports, would be anonymous and contain as little identifying information as possible. In my records, I have the source of every piece of data or story, in context. If any reader, for their own studies or peace of mind, needs to know the trustworthiness coefficient of a given anecdote, they can contact me, and I will provide whatever further information I can without violating anonymity. While false anecdotes could have been passed on by dishonest or misinformed sources, it is highly unlikely that more than one or two, if any, exist. In any case, I have prefaced unvouched-for opinions and anecdotes to indicate the level of indirection, i.e. "a female graduate student wrote such-and-such" instead of "a female graduate student had the following experience." A.2 The History of the Document This paper was begun during the spring of my senior year, as a term paper for a course entitled "Women and Computers," taught by Prof. Sherry Turkle. Because the paper was so long and because I had other graduation requirements, I did not finish it until the following January, when I presented the paper during MIT's Independent Activity Period. I also distributed the paper through electronic means, mostly to female computer scientists, some of whom further distributed copies. Because of the interest the paper generated and the support of the department, I decided to turn it into an Artificial Intelligence Laboratory technical report, the simplest way to semi-publish a document.  I had expected negative reactions to my report, on the net and at MIT, but I was pleasantly surprised. Only a few netters sent negative email, and nobody at MIT gave me any trouble. In fact, the head of the EECS department, Prof. Paul Penfield, was supportive of the project, providing xerox money, and read the report. The associate head for CS, Prof. Fernando Corbato, attended my talk. A number of computer science professors, male and female, also read the report and expressed encouragement.  I made many changes between the original and this version of the report. In addition to correcting typos, changes were: XCorrecting misleading statistics.(# XIncorporating anecdotes and reactions sent in response to the original report.  XIncluding material from additional articles and books.(# XReworking the section on affirmative action to correct my prior misconceptions.(# XRemoving an email conversation with a "flamer" that had been included as an appendix.(# XAdding an appendix on advantages women have.(# XAdding quotations to the beginning of the chapters.(# The differences between the two versions are large enough that I would now prefer people to treat the original as a draft and not duplicate or quote it.  %C0*((ԌA.3 MIT "Barriers to Equality in Academia: Women in Computer Science at MIT" [MIT 1983], published in 1983 and describing some of the problems faced by women at MIT was distributed widely. Unfortunately, some people incorrectly inferred that MIT was a worse place for female computer scientists than other schools. There is no reason, however, to think that it was any worse than other CS departments. In fact, it was probably better, since there were enough women at MIT to write such a report and the administration was supportive enough to encourage it. I want to take this opportunity to defend MIT's reputation.  Specifically, MIT's CS department is more supportive of women than other schools' in the following ways: XThere is support for reports such as "Barriers to Equality" and this one.  XThe sensitivity of the department has been increased by these reports. This may be the reason I do not see pictures here of nude women on walls or computer screens, still common in other places.  XThere is an unusually strict policy against romance between faculty and students. Professors are not even permitted to date students in other departments.  XThere are no sexist or harassing professors that female graduate students warn each other about.  XThere are four female professors, three of them tenured, all of whom have expressed support of female students in one way or another. As of 1989, only 9 departments nationwide (5.6%) have this many women [Gries et al. 1991].  XMIT has an outstanding ombudsperson, Prof. Mary Rowe, who deals with bias complaints effectively and tactfully. She is a pioneer in the study of subconscious bias [Rowe 1990, Rowe 1981, Rowe 1985].  Each of these points does not hold for many other computer science departments. A.4 How to Obtain Additional Copies Readers are free to make photocopies of this report or sections of it, as long as they are not distributed for direct commercial advantage, and as long as I receive credit as being the author. For information on obtaining additional copies, contact the publications office of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab at publications@ai.mit.edu, 617-253-6773, or at the following address:  Publications  MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory  545 Technology Square  Cambridge, MA 02139  If you are connected to the Internet, you can obtain additional copies of this report through anonymous ftp by following these steps:'D0*((Ԍ X 1. Change to a directory, such as /usr/tmp, with plenty of free space.(# , , 2. Type: ftp ftp.ai.mit.edu, or, if that fails, ftp 128.52.32.6! , 3. At login prompt, type: anonymous! , , 4. For password, enter your user name (or any string)! , 5. Type: cd pub/ellens! , , 6. If you have access to a Postcript printer, type: mget womcs*.ps, replying y to the prompts!  or , , 7. For a WordPerfect (5.1) version (any printer), type: get wpwomcs (or wpwomcs.zip for a pkzipped version).(# If you have access to a Postscript printer but not ftp, send electronic mail to ellens@ai.mit.edu, and I will email you the report. APPENDIX B: SEX-BASED INTELLECTUAL DIFFERENCES , I deny that anyone knows, or can know, the nature of the two sexes, as long as they have only been seen in their present relation to one another.... What is now called the nature of women is an eminently artificial thing-the result of forced repression in some directions,  T unnatural stimulation in others.-John Stuart Milli& T ԍMill, John Stuart. The Subjection of Women, MIT Press, 1972, page 22.i! , Dr. Edward H. Clarke's book Sex in Education, or a Fair Chance for the Girls [1873] was the great uterine manifesto of the nineteenth century. It appeared at the height of the pressure for co-education at Harvard, where Clarke was a professor, and went through seventeen editions in the space of a few years. Clarke reviewed the medical theories of female nature-the innate frailty of women, the brain-uterus competition-and concluded, with startling but unassailable logic, that higher education would cause women's uteruses to  T atrophy!h& T ԍEhrenreich, Barbara and Deirdre English. For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1978, page 115.! Research on Biological Differences A large amount of research has been done on biological sexbased differences in various kinds of intelligence. Sociobiology is a tricky field, because it is difficult to separate the effects of environment and genetics on individuals. As this report has shown, environmental differences can be immense. Many studies in this field have been flawed by the lack of adequate controls. For example, some studies of differential mathematical ability have failed to take into account that the male subjects had"E0*(( taken more math courses than the females [Petersen 1980, page 33] or used different types of toys as children. Researchers have generally found that men tend to have superior spatial ability, while women have superior verbal VERBAL  ability, with both differences developing at puberty [Petersen 1980, pages 31-33]; however, the interplay between biological and social influences is not yet understood [Petersen 1980, Kramer et al. 1990]. As discussed earlier in the report, boys are given more toys that would encourage development of spatial skills, while girls are spoken to more by adults. The argument for biological differences, however, was recently bolstered when Doreen Kimura found "that hormonal levels can affect people's performance on certain verbal and spatial tests" [Holloway 1990, page 40]. Reactions People's reactions to these facts vary. Some people conclude that it justifies women's lack of participation in traditionallymale fields. However, powerful arguments exist against taking such a stand: , [B]iological factors cannot be the complete answer. In other countries, particularly in Eastern Europe, large numbers of women study science successfully, despite any biological handicap. Nor are biological predispositions necessarily relevant when formulating education policy. Girls usually score better than boys on verbal tests, and boys have more difficulty than girls in learning to read. But schools do not take this as a reason for letting boys drop out of reading classes. Quite the reverse: most schools have remedial reading classes which are used predominantly by boys. Teachers put extra effort into teaching boys to read to make up for any deficiency, whether its origin is biological or social. The same could be done to boost the spatial ability of girls if the problems were considered equally serious [Kelly 1982, page 497].!  Additionally, the field of feminist technology argues that can legitimately be taught in a manner that plays more to women's strengths, be they biological or environmental, not relying so heavily on fields like mathematics in which men currently outperform women. For example, Sherry Turkle and Seymour Papert found: , When we looked closely at programmers in action we saw formal and abstract approaches; but we also saw highly successful programmers in relationships with their material that are more reminiscent of a painter than a logician. They use concrete and personal approaches to knowledge that are far from the cultural stereotypes of formal mathematics [Turkle et al. 1990, page 128].! Student programmers with the less mathematical style, sometimes men but usually women, are discouraged when in classes that force a more mathematical approach [Turkle et al. 1990, pages 131-132]. Turkle and Papert advocate "epistemological pluralism," in which different approaches are allowed to flourish. Similarly, Sally L. Hacker argues convincingly that more mathematics than necessary is required by engineering programs, weeding out students who would be able to succeed as engineers if they did not have to pass timed calculus exams [Hacker 1983]. As one female computer science professor writes: , [T]here's a committee at the [X] engineering school trying to redesign the school-wide common core curriculum, for freshman and sophomore years. I asked our department's'F0*(( representative to the committee to bring up that the current common core tends to discourage females and minorities because it's too heavily math and engineering oriented (and most of these courses are not needed for CS), and does not provide options to take courses in more peopleoriented fields (that are relevant to CS) such as psychology. Apparently the committee chairman said to our representative something to the effect that it is not the mission of this committee to address women and minorities, and thus he would not put this issue on the agenda.! Conclusion It seems possible that there are biological differences in the way men and women think; certainly, there are currently differences in men's and women's thinking styles. There is no way to tell now how great the biological differences are. While they may imply that women will never reach parity with men in computer science and in engineering, there are two major reasons to believe that women's roles can increase greatly from today's: First, as shown throughout this report, females face immense cultural barriers. Second, as alluded to in this appendix, many technical fields play to men's strong areas. Computer science is built, in large part, on mathematics, which relies on spatial ability. Computer programming, however, does not in itself require spatial ability, and some areas of computer science, such as user interface design, require more knowledge of human psychology than mathematics. Additionally, sex-based differences are a tendency, and their degree of effect in an individual cannot be known. APPENDIX C: ADVANTAGES FOR WOMEN When writing in the body of the report of all the disadvantages women face, occasionally an advantage for women would come to mind. In the name of fairness and in order to end the report on a positive note, I am including them here: XThe flip side of a woman's being less likely to have a spouse devoted full-time to supporting her career (page SUPPORT25) is that she is more likely to have a spouse who earns money. A female engineer told me how her husband's income allowed her to quit a job she hated and spend three months looking for one that she loved.  XAlthough males outperform females in mathematical ability, females outperform males in verbal ability (page VERBAL64). In the academic world of "publish or perish," being able to write clearly and properly is a large plus.  XIf people are more likely to help members of the same sex (page HELPLIKE23), and if women are currently raised to be more sensitive than men (page SENSITIVE15), women will get tremendous support from their same-sex peers. (I have found my female colleagues extremely supportive.)  XIt is not entirely disadvantageous that girls tend to be taught how to cook and keep house instead of how to fix bicycles (page BICYCLE7). Being able to cook for oneself at college is healthier and cheaper than having to rely on cafeterias or junk food.  XWhile all women are to some extent penalized out of the suspicion that they will take time off their career to have children (page  KIDZ26 ), they have more freedom to do so than'G0*(( men. A woman's career can be salvaged if she takes time off to spend with her young children, but a man would be considered insanely irresponsible.  XIngenuity can transform other disadvantages into advantages, as explained in Betty Lehan Harragan's wonderful Games Mother Never Taught You. For example, she points out that, while women hate being constantly in the spotlight, men "fantasize about how well they could exploit such a favorable situation.... Today's pioneer women can begin taking command of situations by merely accepting their unique position in the spotlight" [Harragan 1987, page 311].   Most important, with a positive attitude, women can make the most of their situation. The successful female computer scientists I know do not say, "I could have gone further if I were a man." They say, "I had to work a lot harder than a man to get where I am." Although the two statements may be equivalent, self-assuredness is psychologically more useful than self-pity. Additionally, even women who have been discouraged sometimes succeed out of spite. H0*(( BIBLIOGRAPHY ,  [Abramson 1975] Abramson, Joan. Discrimination in the Academic Profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1975. An account of a female professor's experiences of sexual discrimination and a discussion of the situation for other female academics.(# ,  [Adelson 1990] Adelson, Andrea. "Study Attacks Women's Roles in TV." The New York Times, November 19, 1990, page C18. A report on a study, "What's Wrong With This Picture?," commissioned by Women in Film and the National Commission on Working Women. The report found that men have more leading roles than women and that women continue to be portrayed in a stereotyped manner.(# ,  [Aisenberg et al. 1988] Aisenberg, Nadya and Mona Harrington. Women in Academe: Outsiders in the Sacred Grove. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988. A discussion of the treatment of female graduate students and faculty members, along with advice on how to improve one's chances of success. The major shortcoming of the book (from my point of view) is that it is based almost entirely on interviews with women in the humanities and social sciences.(# ,  [Anu 1990] Vedantham, Anu. "A Hostile Educational Environment." This short document was distributed in the introductory computer science class at MIT, 6.001, Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, in Spring, 1990, after a sexist fake handout, by an unknown author, had been distributed.(# ,  [Baker 1990] Baker, Douglas D., David E. Terpstra, and Kinley Larantz. "The Influence of Individual Characteristics and Severity of Harassing Behavior on Reactions to Sexual Harassment." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 5/6 (1990) 305 325. Results of a survey of individuals' reactions to different sexual harassment scenarios, finding differences in response to be partly based on sex. Contains a good bibliography on sexual harassment.(# ,  [Baum 1990] Baum, Eleanor. "Recruiting and Graduating Women: The Underrepresented Student." IEEE Communications Magazine, December 1990, 47-50. Part of a special issue on engineering education.(# ,  [Bem et al. 1973] Bem, Sandra L. and Daryl J. Bem. "Does Sex-biased Job Advertising `Aid and Abet' Sex Discrimination?" Journal of Applied Social Psychology 3 (1973): 6-18. Reports that individuals are more likely to apply for a job if it is the job description is phrased in language that does not implicitly exclude their sex.(# ,  [Bennett 1982] Bennett, Sheila Kishler. "Student Perceptions of and Expectations for Male and Female Instructors: Evidence Relating to the Question of Gender Bias in Teaching Evaluation," Journal of Educational Psychology, 74 (1982), 170-179. Evidence that female professors are judged more harshly than male professors by students.(# ,  [CMU 1989] CMU Computer Science Graduate Students and Staff. Dealing With Pornography in Academia: Report on a Grassroots Action, unpublished, 1989. A summary of the experiences of a group of Carnegie Mellon computer science students and staff members when they urged members of the community to stop displaying pictures of naked women on computer screens.(# 'I0*((Ԍ,  [Casserly 1979] Casserly, Patricia Lund. Helping Able Young Women Take Math and Science Seriously in School. New York: The College Board, 1979. Reprinted, with revisions, from Colangelo Zaffrann, ed., New Voices in Counseling the Gifted, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, 1979.(# ,  [Clark et al. 1986] Clark, Shirley M. and Mary Corcoran. "Perspectives on the Professional Socialization of Women Faculty: A Case of Accumulative Disadvantage?" Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 57, No. 1, Jan./Feb. 1986.(# ,  [Cooper Union 1989] The Cooper Union 1989 National Survey of Women Engineers. Available on request from the Albert Nerken School of Engineering, 51 Astor Place, New York, NY 10003.(# ,  [Courtney et al. 1983] Courtney, Alice E. and Thomas W. Whipple. Sex Stereotyping in Advertising. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983.(# ,  [Deaux et al. 1974] Deaux, K. and T. Emswiller. "Explanations of Successful Performance on Sex-Linked Tasks: What is skill for the male is luck for the female." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29 (1974), 80 85.(# ,  [Ehrenreich et al. 1978] Ehrenreich, Barbara and Deirdre English. For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1978. An account of how the rise of science and pseudo-science in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries took power away from women, in their roles as healers, mothers, and human beings.(# ,  [Epstein 1974] Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs. "Bringing Women In: Rewards, Punishments, and the Structure of Achievement," in [Kundsin 1973], pages 13-22.(# ,  [Ernest 1976] Ernest, John. "Mathematics and Sex." The American Mathematics Monthly, October 1976, 83:595-615. A good survey of the factors discouraging females from mathematics with an excellent bibliography.(# ,  [Erkut 1983] Erkut, Sumru. "Exploring Sex Differences in Expectancy, Attribution, and Academic Achievement." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 9 (1983) 217 231. A study of sex differences in how undergraduates expected to do on a midterm and to what they attributed any success.(# ,  [Ferry et al. 1982] Ferry, Georgina and Jane Moore. "True Confessions of Women in Science." New Scientist 95 (July 1, 1982), 27-30. The fascinating results of this English magazine's survey of its female readers.(# ,  [Fidell 1975] Fidell, L. S. "Empirical Verification of Sex Discrimination in Hiring Practices in Psychology," in R. K. Unger and F. L. Denmark, eds., Women: Dependent or Independent Variable, Psychological Dimensions: New York, 1975.(# ,  [Frank et al. 1983] Frank, Francine and Frank Anshen. Language and the Sexes. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983.(# %J0*((Ԍ,  [Franklin et al. 1981] Franklin, Phyllis, et al. "Sexual and Gender Harassment in the Academy: A Guide for Faculty, Students and Administrators," Commission on the Status of Women in the Profession, The Modern Language Association of America, New York, NY, 1981.(# ,  [Frenkel 1990] Frenkel, Karen A. "Women and Computing." Communications of the ACM, November 1990, 34-46. One of two articles comprising CACM's cover story on women and computing. Has a good bibliography.(# ,  [Gilbert et al. 1983] Gilbert, Lucia A., June M. Gallessich, and Sherri L. Evans. "Sex of Faculty Role Model and Students' Self-Perceptions of Competency." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 9 (1983) 597 607. Results of a study of the sex of students' role models and the students' perceptions of themselves.(# ,  [Goldberg 1968] Goldberg, Philip. "Are Women Prejudiced Against Women?" Trans-Action, 5 (1986), 28 80. The original study showing how the sex of the author of a paper influences evaluations of the paper's quality.(# ,  [Gornick 1972] Gornick, Vivian and Barbara K. Moran, editors. Women in Sexist Society. New York: Basic Books, 1972. A collection of essays, many still relevant, on gender inequalities in American society.(# ,  [Gornick 1990] Gornick, Vivian. Women in Science: 100 Journeys into the Territory. New York: Touchstone (Simon & Schuster), 1990. Short, anecdotal profiles of over a hundred female scientists, most from an earlier generation. I found the book too depressing to read in its entirety. It shows that the situation has changed for the better.(# ,    [Gries et al. 1991] Gries, David and Dorothy Marsh. "CS Produced 734 Ph.D.s in 1989-90; CE Added 173 for a Total of 907." Computing Research News, January 1991, 610. An annual report on the number of men and women earning PhDs and working as professors in computer science and engineering.(# ,  [Gross 1991] Gross, Jane. "Female Surgeon's Quitting Touches Nerves at Medical School." The New York Times, July 14, 1991, page 10. A report on the sexism at Stanford Medical School which caused a female neurosurgeon to resign.(# ,  [Hacker 1983] Hacker, Sally L. "Mathematization of Engineering: Limits on Women and the Field," in Joan Rothschild, editor, Machina ex Dea: Feminist Perspectives on Technology, New York: Pergamon Press, 1983, pages 38 58. Argues convincingly the surprising position that mathematics requirements artificially limit entry into engineering.(# ,  [Hall 1982] Hall, Roberta M., with the assistance of Bernice R. Sandler. "The Classroom Climate: A Chilly One for Women?" Copyright 1986 by the Project on the Status and Education of Women, Association of American Colleges, Washington, DC, 1986. An excellent overview of the problems women face at universities, with a great bibliography.(# ,  [Harragan 1987] Harragan, Betty Lehan. Games Mother Never Taught You. Warner Books: New York, 1987. The classic guide to "corporate gamesmanship for women." Although intended for businesswomen, it had useful advice for any female professional.(#'K0*((Ԍ,    [Harrigan 1989] Harrigan, Kristina E. Letters to the Editor. International Herald Tribune, exact date unknown, 1989.(# ,  [Harrington 1990] Harrington, Susan Marie. "Barriers to Women in Undergraduate Computer Science: The Effects of the Computer Environment on the Success and Continuance of Female Students." PhD Thesis, Division of Teacher Education, University of Oregon, 1990. A study of female undergraduates' computer science experiences at a large public university, based on interviews, class records, and the literature. One of its major findings is that, although women drop out of the school's computer science program more than men, women outperformed men in most of the required computer science courses, suggesting that their underrepresentation was not due to lack of ability. The author can currently be contacted at Columbia Union College, Maryland.(# ,  [Hess et al. 1985] Hess, Robert D. and Irene T. Miura. "Gender Differences in Enrollment in Computer Camps and Classes." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 13 (1985) 193-203.(# ,  [Hofstadter 1986] Hofstadter, Douglas R. Metamagical Themas: Questing for Essence of Mind and Pattern. New York: Bantam Books, 1986. A collection of interesting essays, most of which which were published in the Scientific American column of the same name. Two of the chapters deal with sexism in language and provided the powerful arguments that first convinced me.(# ,  [Holland 1990] Holland, Dorothy C. and Margaret A. Eisenhart. Educated in Romance: Woman, Achievement, and College Culture. The University of Chicago Press, 1990. Based on a study commissioned by the National Institute of Education, this book describes how the cultures at two southern universities encourages women to drastically lower their career ambitions and to instead seek status through boyfriends and husbands.(# ,  [Holloway 1990] Holloway, Marguerite. "Profile: Vive la Difference." Scientific American, October 1990, 18 42. A profile of psychologist Doreen Kimura, whose research has found a correlation between hormonal levels and spatial and verbal abilities.(# ,  [Homans 1987] Homans, Hilary. "Man-made Myths: The Reality of Being a Woman Scientist in the NHS," in Spencer, Anne and David Podmore, editors, In a Man's World: Essays on Women in Maledominated Professions. London & New York: Tavistock Publications, 1987. A paper exploring "some of the dominant ideas surrounding women working as scientists and technical staff in the National Health Services (NHS)."(# ,  [Horner et al. 1990] Horner, Blair and Nadya Lawson. "Letters to the Editor." The New York Times, November 29, 1990. A letter from two members of the New York Public Interest Group, one the legislative director and the other with its Education Watch, on how the SAT underpredicts women's performance.(# ,  [Horner 1970] Horner, Matina S. "Femininity and Successful Achievement: A Basic Inconsistency," in Judith Bardwick, et al., editors, Feminine Personality and Conflict. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1970. A paper about Horner's highly-influential research, which showed women's negative feelings toward achievement.(# &L0*((Ԍ,    [Hunt 1991] Hunt, Marion. "Letters to the Editor." The New York Times, June 19, 1991, page A24.(# ,  [Kamen 1990] Kamen, Paula. "Feminism, a Dirty Word." The New York Times, November 23, 1990, page A37. An opinion column describing the author's experiences as a college journalist: Once she began writing about sexism, she was labeled a feminist and suspected of hating men and other radical positions.(# ,  [Kaschak 1978] Kaschak, Ellyn. "Sex Bias in Student Evaluations of College Professors," Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2 (1978), 235-242. Describes a study that found that male students rated female professors lower than male professors on the basis of artificial case studies.(# ,  [Keith et al. 1990] Keith, Sandra Z. and Philip Keith, editors, Proceedings of the National Conference on Women in Mathematics and the Sciences. St. Cloud, MN: St. Cloud University, 1990.(# ,  [Kelly 1982] Kelly, Alison. "Why Girls Don't Do Science." New Scientist 94 (May 20, 1982), 497-500. A summary of bias against girls in science in the classroom and at home.(# ,  [Kidder 1982] Kidder, Tracy. The Soul of a New Machine. New York: Avon, 1982. One of the hacker culture classics, describing the intense effort behind the design of a computer at Data General.(# ,  [Kierstead et al. 1988] Kierstead, Diane, Patti D'Agostino, and Heidi Dill. "Sex Role Stereotyping of College Professors: Bias in Students' Ratings of Instructors," Journal of Educational Psychology, 80 (1988), 342344. Further evidence that students judge female professors more harshly than they do male professors.(# ,  [Kiesler et al. 1985] Kiesler, Sara, Lee Sproull, and Jacquelynne S. Eccles. "Pool Halls, Chips, and War Games: Women in the Culture of Computing." Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9 (1985) 451-462. Presents results from a study of sex-based arcade and home video game usage along with a discussion of the consequences.(# ,  [Koblitz 1990] Koblitz, Neal. "Are Student Ratings Unfair to Women?" Newsletter of the Association for Women in Mathematics, September October 1990. An informative survey of studies of bias in student ratings of professors.(# ,  [Komisar 1972] Komisar, Lucy. "The Image of Woman in Advertising," in [Gornick 1990, pages 304-317] . A discussion of the biased manner in which females were presented in advertising twenty years ago. While some of the ads described would not appear today, many can still be seen.(# ,  [Kramer et al. 1990] Kramer, Pamela E. and Sheila Lehman. "Mismeasuring Women: A Critique of Research on Computer Ability and Avoidance." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 16 (1990) 158 172.(# ,  [Kundsin 1973] Kundsin, Ruth B., editor. Women and Success: The Anatomy of Achievement. New York: William Morrow & Company, 1974. Originally published as an annal of the New'M0*(( York Academy of Sciences under the title Successful Women in the Sciences: An Analysis of Determinants, this book provides autobiographical sketches of a dozen successful female scientists and essays on the topics of family attitudes, the impact of education, economic factors, determinants in individual life experiences, and related problems of professional women. Although nearly twenty years old, many of the essays are still valuable.(# ,  [Lakoff 1975] Lakoff, Robin. Language and Woman's Place. Harper & Row, Publishers: New York, 1975. A pioneering work on how women's lower status is reflected by the language women speak and in which they are spoken of.(# ,  [LaPlante 1989] LaPlante, Alice. Sexist Images Persist at Comdex. Infoworld, November 27, 1989, page 58. A trade journal article describing the sexism displayed at one of the industry's most important trade shows.(# ,  [Lattin 1984] Lattin, Patricia Hopkins. "Academic women, affirmative action, and middle America in the eighties," in Resa L. Dudovitz, ed., Women in Academe. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1984, pages 223 230.(# ,  [Leveson 1989] Leveson, Nancy. "Women in Computer Science: A Report of the NSF CISE Cross-Disciplinary Activities Advisory Committee." Recommendations to the National Science Foundation for ways to encourage women, describing a variety of approaches. Can be obtained by anonymous ftp at ics.uci.edu:pub/nancy/nsf.report.(# ,  [Leveson 1990] Leveson, Nancy. "Educational Pipeline Issues for Women." Computing Research News, October 1990 and January 1991. A report on women in different stages of the "pipeline," providing reasons they drop out and suggestions for retaining them. Can be obtained by anonymous ftp at ics.uci.edu:pub/nancy/snowbird.(# ,    [Levy 1984] Levy, Steven. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984. A computer hacker classic, describing the early hackers at MIT and then the Silicon Valley hackers, capturing the intensity of the hacking culture.(# ,  [Lewin 1990] Lewin, Tamar. "Winner of Sex Bias Suit Set to Enter Next Arena." The New York Times, May 19, 1990, page 7. A description of a lawsuit in which a court ordered Price Waterhouse to provide a partnership to Ann Hopkins, who was found to have been denied because of her unfeminine personality.(# ,  [Lockheed 1985] Lockheed, Marlaine E. "Women, Girls, and Computers: A First Look at the Evidence." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 13 (1985) 115-122. Part of a special issue on sex-related computer use, summarizing a number of studies.(# ,  [McNeil 1991] McNeil, Donald G., Jr. "Should Women Be Sent Into Combat?" The New York Times, July 21, 1991, page E3. A summary of the arguments for against allowing women to serve in combat positions. It includes the statistic that, even with pregnancy leave, enlisted women spend less time off work than enlisted men.(# %N0*((Ԍ,  [MTQ 1989A] MacTech Quarterly, Summer, 1989. Volume 1, number 2. In this issue of the magazine (now called MacTech Journal), the editor announced the magazine's policy of using "she" as the default thirdperson pronoun.(# ,  [MTQ 1989B] MacTech Quarterly, Fall, 1989. Volume 1, number 3. This issue printed letters reacting to its progressive grammar policy announced in the previous issue and had an article on biases women face in computer science.(# ,  [Markoff 1989] Markoff, John. "Hacker's World: Woman-Unfriendly?" International Herald Tribune, February 4, 1989. A brief article describing women's discomfort with the hacker environment.(# ,  [Marriott 1991] Marriott, Michael. "Beyond `Yuck' for Girls in Science." The New York Times, June 15, 1991, page unknown. A summary of a study on how to teach science more effectively to girls.(# ,  [Martin 1984] Martin, Elaine, "Power and Authority in the Classroom: Sexist Stereotypes in Teaching Evaluations," Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 9 (1984), 482-492. A write-up of an experiment that found that college students judged female professors more harshly than they did male professors.(# ,  [MIT 1983] "Barriers to Equality in Academia: Women in Computer Science at MIT." Prepared by female graduate students and research staff in the Laboratory for Computer Science and the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT. An early influential report describing problems women encountered at MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.(# ,  [MIT 1987] Presidential Committee on Women Students Interests, "Survey of Graduate Students," Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1987. A survey which found that many female graduate students at MIT felt they encountered significant barriers due to their sex.(# ,  [Mednick et al. 1975] Mednick, Martha Tamara Shuch, Sandra Schwartz Tangri, and Lois Wladis Hoffman, editors. Women and Achievement. New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation (John Wiley & Sons), 1975. A collection of essays studying women's uneasiness with achievement.(# ,  [Miller et al. 1980] Miller, Casey and Kate Swift, Words and Women. New York: Doubleday, Anchor Press, 1977.(# ,  [Ott 1975] Ott, Mary. "Female Engineering Students-Attitudes, Characteristics, Expectations, Responses to Engineering Education." Final report for NSF grant #SMI-75-18013A01. ERIC Document #ED 160400.(# ,  [Paludi et al. 1983] Paludi, Michele A., and William D. Bauer. "Goldberg Revisited: What's in an Author's Name." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 9 (1983) 387390. Results of a study that asked male and female college students to rate articles on a range of subjects, where the author's name was male, female, or ambiguous. Both male and female subjects rated the papers with the male author highest and the female author lowest.(# 'O0*((Ԍ,  [Paludi et al. 1985] Paludi, Michele A., and Lisa A. Strayer, "What's in an Author's Name? Different Evaluations of Performance as a Function of Author's Name," Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 12 (1985) 353-361.(# ,  [Pearl et al. 1990] Pearl, Amy, Martha E. Pollack, Eve Riskin, Becky Thomas, Elizabeth Wolf, and Alice Wu. "Becoming a Computer Scientist." Communications of the ACM, November 1990, 4757. The first report of the newly-created ACM Committee on the Status of Women and Minorities in Computer Science, in an issue featuring "Women and Computing." An excellent short survey of the topic, with a good bibliography.(# ,  [Perl 1978] Perl, Teri. Math Equals: Biographies of Women Mathematicians + Related Activities. Addison-Wesley, 1978. A set of biographical sketches of female mathematicians and mathematical puzzles and concepts designed to encourage girls to study math.(# ,  [Persing 1978] Persing, Bobbye Sorrels. The Nonsexist Communicator. East Elmhurst, New York: Communication Dynamics Press, 1978. Strongly argues avoiding traditional biased English and provides some useful guidelines for improvement.(# ,  [Petersen 1980] Petersen, Anne C. "Biopsychosocial Processes in the Development of Sexrelated Differences," in Jacquelynne E. Parsons, editor, The Psychobiology of Sex Differences and Sex Roles. Washington: Hemisphere Publishing Company, 1980, pages 31-56.(# ,  [Pomerleau et al. 1990] Pomerleau, Andree, Daniel Bolduc, Gerard Malcuit, and Louise Cossette. "Pink or Blue: Environmental Gender Stereotypes in the First Two Years of Life." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 22 (1990) 359-367. A survey of research on the difference of toys given to and play behavior encouraged in young boys and girls, also describing the authors' research in the difference of physical environments (clothing, room decorations, and toys) in infants' rooms.(# ,  [Pringle 1989] Pringle, Rosemary. Secretaries Talk: Sexuality, Power and Work. New York: Verso. Based on interviews at offices and secretarial schools in Australia, this book explores the sexual dynamics of the secretary-boss relationship.(# ,    [Rheingold et al. 1975] Rheingold, H. L. and K. V. Cook. "The Contents of Boys' and Girls' Rooms as an Index of Parents' Behavior." Child Development, 46 (1975), 445-463. A study of the toys possessed by children from one to six years old, revealing substantial sex differences.(# ,  [Rowe 1981] Rowe, Mary P. "Dealing with Sexual Harassment." Harvard Business Review, May-June 1981, 42-47. Advice by the special assistant to the president of MIT to managers on how to deal with sexual harassment of employees.(# ,  [Rowe 1985] Rowe, Mary P. "Dealing with Harassment Concerns." Transcript of a talk given at Yale University on May 10, 1985. Copies are available through the Office for Women in Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510 (203)-785-4680. A talk by the MIT ombudsperson on her experience in the job and advice about dealing with harassment concerns.(# ,  [Rowe 1990] Rowe, Mary P. "Barriers to Equality: The Power of Subtle Discrimination to Maintain Unequal Opportunity." Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, Vol. 3, No. 2,&P0*(( 1990, pages 153 163. An article arguing that "subtle discrimination is now the principal scaffolding for segregation in the United States."(# ,  [Sadker et al. 1985] Sadker, Myra and David Sadker. "Sexism in the Schoolroom of the 80's." Psychology Today, March 1985.(# ,  [Sandler 1986] Sandler, Bernice R., with the assistance of Roberta M. Hall. "The Campus Climate Revisited: Chilly for Women Faculty, Administrators, and Graduate Students." Copyright 1986 by the Project on the Status and Education of Women, Association of American Colleges, Washington, DC, 1986. A report describing the subtle and less-subtle ways in which the university provides an unpleasant environment for women.(# ,  [Sandler 1988] Sandler, Bernice R. "The Classroom Climate: Chilly for Women?" in Deneef, et al., editors, The Academic Handbook, Durham: Duke University Press, 1988, pages 146-152. A good overview of research on subtle subconscious bias, although it does not contain references.(# ,  [Schwartz et al. 1985] Schwartz, L. A., and W. T. Markham. "Sex Stereotyping in Children's Toy Advertisements." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 12 (1985) 157-170.(# ,  [Selvin 1991] Selvin, Paul. "Does the Harrison Case Reveal Sexism in Math?" Science 252 (June 28, 1991), 1781-1783. An account of the controversy surrounding Berkeley's denial of tenure to mathematician Jenny Harrison, who has filed a sexual discrimination suit. The article also contains statistics on the scarcity of female mathematics professors: At the top ten universities, 4 out of 303 tenured professors are female, as are 1 out of 86 untenured professors.(# ,  [Sidner 1980] Sidner, Candace L. "On Being a Woman Student at MIT or How to Miss the Stumbling Blocks in Graduate Education." Unpublished report, 1980.(# ,  [Simeone 1987] Simeone, Angela. Academic Women: Working Towards Equality. Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey Publishers, Inc., 1987. A good overview of the situation for female graduate students and faculty.(# ,    [Sproull et al. 1987] Sproull, Lee, Sara Kiesler, and David Zubrow. "Encountering an Alien Culture," in Kiesler, Sara B., and Lee S. Sproull, eds., Computing and Change on Campus. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pages 173-194. Describes college students' reactions to their first computer programming course.(# ,  [Stern et al. 1989] Stern, Marilyn and Katherine Hildebrandt Karraker. "Sex Stereotyping of Infants: A Review of Gender Labeling Studies." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 20 (1989) 501-522.(# ,  [Stewart et al. 1989] Stewart, Elizabeth, Nancy Hutchinson, Peter Hemmingway, and Fred Bessai. "The Effects of Student Gender, Race, and Achievement on Career Exploration Advice Given by Canadian Preservice Teachers." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 21 (1989) 247262.(# ,  [Tidwell 1990] Tidwell, Jenifer. "Hackers in the Garden: A Case Study of Women in Computer Engineering," unpublished, 1990. A report on how the environment in the MIT Media Lab, while not intentionally sexist, was less hospitable to women.(# 'Q0*((Ԍ,  [Top 1991] Top, Titia J. "Sex Bias in the Evaluation of Performance in the Scientific, Artistic, and Literary Professions: A Review." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 24 (1991) 73 106. Criticism of some studies that have found bias in evaluations of work, depending on whether the judge thought the author male or female.(# ,  [Turkle 1984] Turkle, Sherry. The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984. A feminist classic on individuals' reactions to computers.(# ,    [Turkle et al. 1990] Turkle, Sherry and Seymour Papert. "Epistemological Pluralism: Styles and Voices within the Computer Culture." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 16 (1990), 128 157. A paper arguing that computer programmers use a variety of styles and that educators should not force a single programming model on all students.(# ,  [Van Nostrand 1990] Van Nostrand, Catharine Herr. "Gender-Responsible Leadership: Do Your Teaching Methods Empower Women?" in [Keith et al. 1990, pages 186 191]. A manual of the same title is to be published by Sage Publications, Inc., in Spring 1991. Direct inquiries, with a SASE, to the author at: 36854 Winnebago Road, St. Cloud, MN 56303.(# ,  [Weinraub et al. 1983] Weinraub, Marsha and Lynda M. Brown. "The Development of Sex-Role Stereotypes in Children: Crushing Realities" in Franks and Rothblum, editors, The Stereotyping of Women: Its Effects on Mental Health, New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1983, pages 30-58.(# ,  [Widnall 1988] Widnall, Sheila E. "AAAS Presidential Lecture: Voices from the Pipeline." Science 241 (September 30, 1988), 1740-1745. A discussion, with quantitative data, of the rate at which male and female students drop out of the study of science and engineering, focusing on why women leave more frequently.(# ,  [Wolpert et al. 1988] Wolpert, Lewis and Alison Richards. A Passion for Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. A collection of essays on how scientists view their work, intending to dispel the myth that science is cold and dry.(# ,  [Zappert et al. 1984] Zappert, Laraine T. and Kendyll Stansbury. "A Comparative Analysis of Men and Women in Graduate Programs in Science, Engineering and Medicine at Stanford University." Working Papers, Institute for Research on Women and Gender, Stanford University, 1985. Single copies are available at no cost from the Institute for Research on Women and Gender, Stanford University (415-723-1994).